Chapter 16. The World Wide Web and Electronic Mail

16.1.3.1. httpd.conf

# This is the main server configuration file.
# See URL http://www.apache.org for instructions.

# Do NOT simply read the instructions in here without understanding
# what they do, if you are unsure consult the online docs. You have been
# warned.  

# Originally by Rob McCool. Copyright (c) 1995-1999 The Apache Group.
# All rights reserved. See http://www.apache.org/LICENSE.txt for license.

# ServerType is either inetd, or standalone.

ServerType standalone

# If you are running from inetd, go to "ServerAdmin".

# Port: The port the standalone listens to. For ports < 1023, you will
# need httpd to be run as root initially.

Port 80

# HostnameLookups: Log the names of clients or just their IP numbers
#   e.g.   www.apache.org (on) or 204.62.129.132 (off)
# You should probably turn this off unless you are going to actually
# use the information in your logs, or with a CGI.  Leaving this on
# can slow down access to your site.
HostnameLookups on

# If you wish httpd to run as a different user or group, you must run
# httpd as root initially and it will switch.  

# User/Group: The name (or #number) of the user/group to run httpd as.
#  On SCO (ODT 3) use User nouser and Group nogroup
#  On HPUX you may not be able to use shared memory as nobody, and the
#  suggested workaround is to create a user www and use that user.
User wwwrun
Group #-2

# The following directive disables keepalives and HTTP header flushes for
# Netscape 2.x and browsers which spoof it. There are known problems with
# these

BrowserMatch Mozilla/2 nokeepalive

# ServerAdmin: Your address, where problems with the server should be
# e-mailed.

ServerAdmin [email protected]

# ServerRoot: The directory the server's config, error, and log files
# are kept in

ServerRoot /usr/local/httpd

# BindAddress: You can support virtual hosts with this option. This
# option is used to tell the server which IP address to listen to. 
# It can either contain "*", an IP address, or a fully qualified 
# Internet domain name. See also the VirtualHost directive.

#BindAddress *

# ErrorLog: The location of the error log file. If this does not start
# with /, ServerRoot is prepended to it.

ErrorLog /var/log/httpd.error_log

# TransferLog: The location of the transfer log file. If this does not
# start with /, ServerRoot is prepended to it.

TransferLog /var/log/httpd.access_log

# PidFile: The file the server should log its pid to
PidFile /var/run/httpd.pid

# ScoreBoardFile: File used to store internal server process information.
# Not all architectures require this.  But if yours does (you'll know
# because this file is created when you run Apache) then you *must* 
# ensure that no two invocations of Apache share the same scoreboard file.
ScoreBoardFile /var/log/apache_status

# ServerName allows you to set a host name which is sent back to clients
# for your server if it's different than the one the program would get
# (i.e. use "www" instead of the host's real name).
#
# Note: You cannot just invent host names and hope they work. The name you 
# define here must be a valid DNS name for your host. If you don't
# understand this, ask your network administrator.

#ServerName www.veggie.org

# CacheNegotiatedDocs: By default, Apache sends Pragma: no-cache with each
# document that was negotiated on the basis of content. This asks proxy
# servers not to cache the document. Uncommenting the following line 
# disables this behavior, and proxies will be allowed to cache the
# documents.

#CacheNegotiatedDocs

# Timeout: The number of seconds before receives and sends time out

Timeout 300

# KeepAlive: Whether or not to allow persistent connections (more than
# one request per connection). Set to "Off" to deactivate.

KeepAlive On

# MaxKeepAliveRequests: The maximum number of requests to allow
# during a persistent connection. Set to 0 to allow an unlimited amount.
# We reccomend you leave this number high, for maximum performance.

MaxKeepAliveRequests 100

# KeepAliveTimeout: Number of seconds to wait for the next request

KeepAliveTimeout 15

# Server-pool size regulation.  Rather than making you guess how many
# server processes you need, Apache dynamically adapts to the load it
# sees --- that is, it tries to maintain enough server processes to
# handle the current load, plus a few spare servers to handle transient
# load spikes (e.g., multiple simultaneous requests from a single
# Netscape browser).

# It does this by periodically checking how many servers are waiting
# for a request.  If there are fewer than MinSpareServers, it creates
# a new spare.  If there are more than MaxSpareServers, some of the
# spares die off.  These values are probably OK for most sites ---

MinSpareServers 5
MaxSpareServers 10

# Number of servers to start --- should be a reasonable ballpark figure.

StartServers 5

# Limit on total number of servers running, i.e., limit on the number
# of clients who can simultaneously connect --- if this limit is ever
# reached, clients will be LOCKED OUT, so it should NOT BE SET TOO LOW.
# It is intended mainly as a brake to keep a runaway server from taking
# Unix with it as it spirals down...

MaxClients 150

# MaxRequestsPerChild: the number of requests each child process is
#  allowed to process before the child dies.
#  The child will exit so as to avoid problems after prolonged use when
#  Apache (and maybe the libraries it uses) leak.  On most systems, this
#  isn't really needed, but a few (such as Solaris) do have notable leaks
#  in the libraries.

MaxRequestsPerChild 30

# Proxy Server directives. Uncomment the following line to
# enable the proxy server:

#ProxyRequests On

# To enable the cache as well, edit and uncomment the following lines:

#CacheRoot /usr/local/etc/httpd/proxy
#CacheSize 5
#CacheGcInterval 4
#CacheMaxExpire 24
#CacheLastModifiedFactor 0.1
#CacheDefaultExpire 1
#NoCache a_domain.com another_domain.edu joes.garage_sale.com

# Listen: Allows you to bind Apache to specific IP addresses and/or
# ports, in addition to the default. See also the VirtualHost command

#Listen 3000
#Listen 12.34.56.78:80

#
# Read config files from /etc/httpsd
#
ResourceConfig  /etc/httpd/srm.conf
AccessConfig    /etc/httpd/access.conf
TypesConfig     /etc/httpd/mime.types

# The directory where HTML documents will be held. 
DocumentRoot /usr/local/httpd/htdocs

# Personal directory for each user where HTML documents will be held.

UserDir public_html

The optional ReadmeName and HeaderName directives specify the names of files to be included in the index generated by httpd :

ReadmeName README
HeaderName HEADER

Here, if the file README.html exists in the current directory, it will be appended to the index. The file README will be appended if README.html does not exist. Likewise, HEADER.html or HEADER will be included at the top of the index generated by httpd. You can use these files to describe the contents of a particular directory when an index is requested by the browser:

# Local access filename
AccessFileName .htaccess

# Default MIME type for documents
DefaultType text/plain

Here is a sample access.conf file. It consists of a number of <Directory> items, each of which specifies the options and attributes for a particular directory:

# Set options for the cgi-bin script directory.
<Directory /usr/local/html/cgi-bin>
Options Indexes FollowSymLinks
</Directory>

FollowSymLinks

Symbolic links in this directory should be followed to retrieve the documents they point to.

ExecCGI

Allow the execution of CGI scripts from this directory.

Indexes

Allow indexes to be generated from this directory.

None

Disable all options for this directory.

All

Enable all options for this directory.

There are other options as well; see the httpd documentation for details.

Next, we enable several options and other attributes for /usr/local/httpd/htdocs, the directory containing our HTML documents:

<Directory /usr/local/httpd/htdocs>

Options Indexes FollowSymLinks

# Allow the local access file, .htaccess, to override any attributes
# listed here
AllowOverride All

# Access restrictions for documents in this directory
<Limit GET>
order allow,deny
allow from all
</Limit>

</Directory>

The primary use for local access files is to allow individual users to set the access permissions for personal HTML directories (such as ~/public_html) without having to ask the system administrator to modify the global access file. There are security issues associated with this, however. For example, a user might enable access permissions in her own directory such that any browser can run expensive server-side CGI scripts. If you disable the AllowOverride feature, users cannot get around the access attributes specified in the global access.conf. This can be done by using:

AllowOverride None

The <Limit GET> field is used to specify access rules for browsers attempting to retrieve documents from this server. In this case, we specify order allow,deny, which means that allow rules should be evaluated before deny rules. We then instate the rule allow from all, which simply means any host may retrieve documents from the server. If you wish to deny access from a particular machine or domain, you could add the line:

deny from .nuts.com biffnet.biffs-house.us

Before you can request documents via HTTP from your browser, you'll need to write them. This is the subject of the next section.

All HTML documents should have a title, but headings are, of course, optional. To HTML, a heading is just a portion of text that is set in a larger and/or bolder font. It has no bearing on the actual document structure.

HTML supports six levels of headings:

<h1>First-level heading</h1>
<h2>Second-level heading</h2>
…
<h6>Sixth-level heading</h6>

16.1.4.2. Viewing the document

Before we go much further with HTML, let's describe how to look at your first work of hypertext art. Most web browsers allow you to open a local HTML document and view it. For example, under Navigator, selecting Open Page from the File menu and then clicking Choose File... allows you to view an HTML file. Other browsers, such as Lynx, provide similar mechanisms. You should first save your HTML document in a file (such as sample.html ) and view it with your web browser.

Figure 16-4. Sample HTML document displayed by Netscape

It's also quite easy to make your new HTML documents available via the Web. Assuming you have configured httpd as described in the previous section, you can place the HTML file in the httpd DocumentRoot directory (in our case, this is /usr/local/httpd/htdocs ).

Therefore, assuming the previous document is saved as /usr/local/httpd/htdocs/sample.html, and httpd is running on your system, anyone can access the document by opening the URL:

Figure 16-5. Link displayed by Netscape

The word "here" is highlighted, indicating that it is a link. Clicking on the link within Netscape retrieves the document pointed to by the URL:

16.1.4.4. An aside: MIME types

16.1.4.5. Embedded images

Figure 16-6. Image displayed by Netscape

In theory, the <img> element can be used to embed "any" document into the current one. However, it is most commonly used for small images. The kind of images that can be inline depends on the particular browser. GIF and JPEG images seem to be universally accepted. However, note that not all browsers can display inline images--most notably text-based browsers such as Lynx.

<a href="cat.html"> 
<img src="pics/cat.gif"></a>
Tristessa, the Best Cat in the Universe.

The display won't look any different, but a user who clicks on the picture will be taken to the page cat.html in the same subdirectory as the current page. To make it clear that another page is available, you should probably include both image and text in the anchor. This can be accomplished just by moving the closing </a> tag:

<a href="cat.html"> 
<img align="center" src="pics/cat.gif" alt="Photo of cat">
Tristessa, the Best Cat in the Universe.
</a>

Figure 16-7. Image and link displayed by Netscape

16.1.4.6. More HTML features

Obviously, you need more than section headings, links, and inline images to write nicely formatted HTML documents. HTML provides many other text-layout features.

Figure 16-8. List displayed by Netscape

Figure 16-9. Nested lists displayed by Netscape

<em>

Emphasized text, usually rendered as italics

<code>

Program source code, usually rendered in a constant-width font

<samp>

Sample output from a program, also in constant width

<kbd>

User keyboard input

<strong>

For strong emphasis, usually in boldface

Here is an example that uses several of these elements.

<p> <em>Amazing</em>, she thought. The <kbd>find</kbd> command can be 
used for almost <strong>anything!</strong>

Figure 16-10. Fonts displayed by Netscape

Figure 16-11. Preformatted text displayed by Netscape

Other special characters are available as well, including:

The complete HTML specification, located at:

All right, I dare you to cross this line: <p><hr>
<p> All right, I dare you to cross this one: <p><hr>

<p><hr><p>
<address>Mr. P. Head, [email protected]</address>

Many people link the name within the <address> item to a personal home page.

16.1.4.7. Finding out more

Within Netscape Navigator, you can view the HTML source for any document on the Web. While viewing the document in question, select the Document Source option from the View menu. This gives you an inside look at how the page was written. The Lynx web browser provides a similar option in the form of the backslash (\) command.

16.1.5.1. The HTML form document

Here, we present a small cross section of what forms can do. For an extensive example of forms use, see the URL:

Figure 16-12. Form displayed by Netscape

As you can see, the form uses several additional features of HTML. Let's walk through the file and describe them all.

Line 6 uses the <form> element, which encloses the entire form itself. There are several options, or attributes, associated with the <form> element.

Here, we specify that the script:

/cgi-bin/mailer.pl

Several other attributes for input are also available; these set the maximum length of input for text entry fields, and so forth.

Lines 7 and 8 define input elements named from and subject, both of type text. These text-entry fields are used to enter the sender's email address and the subject of the message.

Note that unlike <input>, the <textarea> element has a corresponding </textarea> end tag on the same line. Any text that appears between <textarea> and </textarea> is the default contents of the entry field.

Finally, on line 16, we end the form with a </form> end tag.

Multiple forms can be used within a single HTML document; however, you cannot nest one <form> within another. A good book where you can learn about HTML and forms is HTML: The Definitive Guide by Chuck Musciano and Bill Kennedy.

16.1.5.2. Writing the CGI script

As mentioned previously, the mechanism by which these name/value pairs are passed to the server script depends upon the form method (GET or POST) used. In general, name/value pairs are encoded in the form:

action?name=val&name=val&…

Server scripts can be written in practically any language, such as C, Perl, or even shell scripts. Because decoding the name/value pairs within a C program can be a bit harrowing, we instead show how to implement a script in Perl, in which text-processing facilities are more suited for this task.

The following example is the Perl script mailer.pl. Put this script in the directory you have set aside to hold CGI scripts when you configured the system:

#!/usr/bin/perl

use CGI qw(:standard);

print header(), start_html( "Mail form results" ),\
h1( "Mail form results" );

my $to = parse( "to" );
my $from = parse( "from" );
my $subject = parse( "subject" );
my $body = parse( "body" );

open (MAIL,"|/usr/lib/sendmail $to") || 
  die "<p>Error: Couldn't execute sendmail.\n";

print MAIL "To: $to\n";
print MAIL "From: $from\n";
print MAIL "subject: $subject\n\n";
print MAIL "$body\n";
close MAIL;

print p( "All right, mailed the following to <tt>$to</tt>:" );
print p( "<pre>\nTo: $to\nFrom: $from\nsubject:\
$subject\n\n$body\n</pre>" );
print end_html();

After closing the pipe to sendmail, we print the message as sent to standard output to allow the user to verify that the message was processed correctly. Again, we use the method p() from CGI.pm to output the HTML code. Finally, we use end_html() to correctly close the HTML tags.